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Resources - ID Concepts
Following are some very good links for learning Instructional
Design concepts. These links will connect you to insightful articles
on the theories and models of instructional design and help you
evolve your understanding of instructional design further.
~~~~~~ 2011 ~~~~~~
July 2011
September 20, 1971 Vol. 98 No. 12 of the Time Magazine
had B.F. Skinner on its cover. (View
the cover at http://www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19710920,00.html
The cover story was titled, “Behavior: Skinner's Utopia:
Panacea, or Path to Hell?” and it discussed Skinner’s
radical views on freedom.
I quote from the story, “"Like the Utopians who preceded
him, Skinner hopes for a society in which men of good will can work,
love and live in security and in harmony. For mankind he wants enough
to eat, a clean environment, and safety from nuclear cataclysm.
He longs for a worldwide culture based on the principles of his
famous didactic novel, Walden Two that he wrote in 1948."
Read more http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909994,00.html#ixzz1TZG6zQD8
Behaviorism, an “outdated” approach to learning, has
the potential of stripping the people of this world of their freedom.
A scary thought, yet a theoretical possibility. Another reading
that I’d recommend in this context is “Brave New World”
by Aldous Huxley.
June 2011
Anchored Instruction is instruction that is designed
around "a theme, a case-study, or a problem to be solved".
The primary learning method employed in anchored instruction is
discovery learning, and so AI can be easily classified as a Constructivist
method.
Read about Anchored Instruction and its main proponent, John Bransford,
at
http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/bransford.html
May 2011
Writing objectives is a core ID Skill. If you aren't
sure of your objective-framing ability, you needn't tell anyone...just
sneak a peek at http://depts.washington.edu/eproject/objectives.htm
This page lists the three characteristics of a good objective (first
stated by Mager) and tells you how you can use them to write objectives
that speak for themselves.
April 2011
The use of multimedia in learning is commonplace these
days. Yet we often find ourselves asking the question - is multimedia
really as effective as it's touted to be? We haven't really been
able to measure the impact of multimedia on learning. Worse still,
we often find courses where learning is smothered by multimedia.
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning by Mayer attempts to
determine how visuals influence learning. This theory is based on
three assumptions: 1. Dual Channel, 2. Limited Capacity, 3. Active
Processing. Mayer's theory outlines 5 cognitive processes, which
sum up to ensure learning.
Read "A Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning - Implications
for Design Principles" by Mayer and Moreno, at: http://www.unm.edu/~moreno/PDFS/chi.pdf
March 2011
This post "Overcoming Bipolar Thinking"
answers the critics of Informal Learning and puts forth Jay Cross’s
views on formal vs. informal learning. Formal Learning (structured,
pre-planned sessions implemented for groups) are good for establishing
the formational concepts - informal learning however, allows people
to decide where they want to go and how they want to reach there.
He argues that people know what they don't know and they are usually
looking to plug the holes in their learning; formal sessions are
a waste of time for such learners.
Read his thoughts at: http://www.informl.com/2010/12/24/overcoming-bipolar-thinking/
February 2011
Have you heard of Backward Design? Backward Design
(Wiggins, McTighe), outlines course design as a 3-step process,
which begins with identifying results and then progressing through
the determination of what could be called a proof of learning, and
then reaching the final design of instruction. Read about Backward
Design at: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/models/backward_design.html
January 2011
As the name suggests, rapid prototyping is the process
of arriving at a prototype rather quickly and then improving it
through an iterative process. The benefit of rapid prototyping is
that you begin to get an idea of the final product from the beginning
and the iterations help you reduce the risk of ending up with an
unacceptable product.
At http://www.instructionaldesign.org/models/rapid_prototyping.html
you will find an interesting overview of rapid prototyping. It discusses
the two models used for rapid prototyping of content (the Waterfall
model and the Spiral model) and lists the steps performed in each.
~~~~~~ 2010 ~~~~~~
December 2010
Where do you begin?
Artists would know that the most important stroke in any picture
is the first one; and writers would vouch that the first line of
their work is the most difficult to write. Is it surprising then,
that the toughest question that an ID has to answer is, "how
should I begin designing a course?" I'd like to point out that
technically all instructional designers know that the answer is
hidden in the course goal and subsequently in the course objectives.
I came across this very interesting and highly readable Reflection
at: http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/instructional-design/
instructional-design-designing-
courses-and-assignments-that-promote-deep-understanding-of-essential-concepts/
called "Instructional Design: Designing Courses and Assignments
That Promote Deep Understanding of Essential Concepts" written
by Jayne Zanglein. This article is a biography of a course re-designed.
November 2010
Carroll's Minimalist theory of instructional design
is an interesting concept.
It focuses on removing the activities that obstruct learning, and
including the ones that facilitate the transfer of knowledge to
build the learner's skills. The fact that the learner often fails
to apply the knowledge he/she gained in school/college to the job
(at work,) is the core around which the Minimalist theory is built.
Read about this simple yet interesting concept at http://www.gettothepoint.ca/minimalisttheory.htm
This page first equips you with the five principles of this theory
and then lists certain useful learning strategies that apply this
theory.
October 2010
If you are creating eLearning content for online delivery,
"Principles of Online Design" at http://www.fgcu.edu/onlinedesign/designDev.html
could help you create a standard checklist that’ll help you
stay on track with your online content.
September 2010
If you are an instructional designer, it's possible
that you use the term "chunking" at least once a day in
your conversations. The term chunking couples two different methods
of simplifying information transfer, which are sequencing and classifying.
Thus, chunking refers to breaking down and then classifying information
into smaller inter-connected, sequenced units, which make retention
easier.
Read about "Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory for Instructional
Design" at http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/id/elaboration_theory.html
This theory is closely associated with the CDT or the Component
Display Theory given by David Merrill. You can explore this theory
at: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/id/component_display.html
August 2010
Social Learning is inevitable. As social learning
happens without any apparent effort from the learner, if we could
understand how it actually happened, we could make learning simpler,
less tiresome, and even enjoyable. Read "Social Learning Theory"
at: http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~lynda_abbott/Social.html
to understand what characterizes social learning.
July 2010
Online courses of every sort and of every conceivable
quality are filling up the learning space with an alarming rapidity.
What is it that you can do to make your content stand out? Well.
You can either take the longer and the harder road of learning instructional
design and designing every activity from scratch, or you can use
some pre-fabricated strategies to make your content effective. Time
constraints often force the best of the instructional designers
to take the second path. Find a road map "Instructional Strategies
for Online Courses" at: http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/pedagogy/instructionalstrategies.asp
June 2010
Of course you know all about the Learning Styles.
There are three learning styles - visual, auditory, and kinesthetic.
Which style applies best to you?
Find out at http://people.usd.edu/~bwjames/tut/learning-style/stylest.html
The concept of Multiple Intelligences is closely related to that
of Learning Styles. Read about Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
at http://www.ldpride.net/learningstyles.MI.htm#Multiple%20Intelligences%20Explained
May 2010
According to to Van Merrienboer's 4C/ID Model and
Instructional Design, we can analyze the complex learning experiences
into four basic components.
These components are:
* Learning Tasks
* Supportive Information
* Just-in-Time Information
* Part-task Practice
These four components are further decoded into Design
Steps that are associated with each of them.
Read the pdf "Blueprints for Complex Learning: The 4C Model"
at http://www.cogtech.usc.edu/publications/clark_4cid.pdf
April 2010
Though I often wonder whether you can truly inspire
everyone in a training program to learn, this link seems interesting.
In the article at: http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/motivating-every-learner-2385,
Educational Psychologist Alan McLean explains his model to ensure
that you've motivated every learner in your classroom.
March 2010
Instructional Strategies are synthesized from the
ID principles, the content, and the audience's profile; keeping
in mind the learning medium. Thus, instructional strategies are
an output of a higher Bloom's level skill; but once created they
could be applied by others with less effort (and of course, with
significantly less creative satisfaction.) However, they do speed
up the design process.
Here's an interesting link that lists some learning strategies
for the web-medium.
http://www.edtech.vt.edu/edtech/id/wbi/index.html
The strategies at the end of the list will help you design interesting
online activities for your self-motivated learners. (I qualify the
learners deliberately - those strategies won't work with the passive
learner.)
February 2010
If you want a crisp and focused description of the
activities that are included in the instructional design process,
you should click http://www.uab.edu/uasomume/cdm/id.htm
to read “Instructional Design.” This page introduces
you to the Stages of Instructional Design, and also helps you understand
how Performance Objectives are written. The eight stages that it
identifies, map to the Dick & Carey model, sans the somewhat
inexplicable "create criterion-referenced tests" and the
very important "Review instruction".
January 2010
I am sure that you've heard of mind-maps. You may
even have used them to develop your ideas. Now it's the turn of
concept-maps. Concept mapping is an interesting method developed
by Joseph Novak and his team, which helps create a schema of different
concepts that relate to one another in some way. Thus, concept maps
may have more than one hub from which relevant concepts radiate
and then connect with other concepts.
Read about the theory of Concept Maps at: http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryCmaps/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.htm
Also read how Concept Maps are created at:
https://www.msu.edu/~luckie/ctools/
~~~~~~ 2009 ~~~~~~
December 2009
George Siemens’ elearnspace houses some simple yet extremely
relevant articles on eLearning and Instructional Design. For those
new to eLearning and instructional design, I recommend "Instructional
Design" at http://www.elearnspace.org/doing/instructionaldesign.htm
This page is a portal to some excellent sites that would give you
an opportunity to burnish your instructional design knowledge.
November 2009
Learning by reflecting upon doing is called experiential learning.
Thus, when you experience something and then learn from it, you
are engaged in experiential learning. Kolb's learning cycle explains
experiential learning as a four-step cycle, which begins at Concrete
Experience, and then cycles through Reflective Observation, Abstract
Conceptualization, and Active Experimentation. Read more about Kolb's
Cycle at:
http://www.learning-theories.com/experiential-learning-kolb.html
October 2009
Kirkpatrick model is as slick and suave as it theoretically can
be - and this article at http://www.nwlink.com/~Donclark/hrd/isd/kirkpatrick.html
does complete justice to the beauty of its logic. Do read through
it and wonder about the practical issues that could crop up while
implementing its higher levels.
September 2009
“ADDIE Based Five-Step Method Towards Instructional Design”
at http://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/~mmalacho/OnLine/ADDIE.html
provides a crisp introduction to the ADDIE model.
Another more detailed article about ADDIE can be found at:
http://ehopac.org/TransformationReports/ISD-ADDIEmodel.pdf
August 2009
"Instructional Design and eLearning: A Discussion of Pedagogical
Content Knowledge as a Missing Construct" at http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/e-jist/docs/vol9_no2/papers/full_papers/kanuka.htm,
is a paper that provides a concise historical overview of the relationship
between instructional design and eLearning. This paper by Heather
Kanuka, first describes instructional design and then puts it firmly
where it belongs, from the technological as well as the philosophical
viewpoint.
July 2009
Is instructional design practical...or in other words:
1. Do instructional designers really use the ID theories?
2. Are the instructional design theories still relevant in the changing
learning scenario of today?
The essay, "What is Instructional Design Theory?" by
Prof. J Cronj at http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/peterdl/ID%20Theory.htm
is an interesting and enlightening write-up that helps answer these
questions.
(I love the George Lucas quote that the author has used at the
beginning of the essay. The eLearning instructional designers need
to break out of the architect mold and don the garb of a carpenter
- we need to build, reflect, review, demolish, and build again -
only then will our audience leave the show happy and satisfied.
June 2009
- Though I am not keen on canned instructional strategies, this
page lists some very generic ones - if you are new to instructional
design, you may find them helpful. Read "Using Instructional
Design Strategies To Foster Curiosity." by Arnone, Marilyn
P, at
http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-3/foster.html
- On the other hand, if you have spent some years creating instructional
content, you probably love to design your own solutions. Read
"Cognitive load theory as an aid for instructional design"
by Graham Cooper, at http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet6/cooper.html.
The article first differentiates between the novice and the expert
learner and then discusses how the transformation from novice
to expert through the use of worked examples and means-end analysis.
May 2009
- The behaviorist and the cognitive/constructivist approaches
are often visualized as opposing each other. The fact however
is that we use both - and in almost equal measures. Read about
the differences between the approaches at:
http://depts.washington.edu/eproject/Instructional%20Design%20Approaches.htm
April 2009
- "Instructional Design in eLearning" by George Siemens
at http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/InstructionalDesign.htm
is a seasoned article from a seasoned professional. I think that
the older articles on technology become better and more useful
with time. The reason for this strange behavior is actually quite
simple - When technologies are young, they are relatively simple
- and so most of the content created around them too is simple.
As technologies mature, they become complex, and then the articles
about them don't address it in a holistic manner - rather they
discuss one of their many facets.
Those who've just entered our unique industry would do well to
read some of the early articles written by George Siemens.
March 2009
- I am a great believer in the power of curiosity arousal. It
works...all the time. In fact, I haven't ever seen it fail. "Using
Instructional Design Strategies To Foster Curiosity" by Arnone,
Marilyn P., at http://www.vtaide.com/png/ERIC/Instructional-Design-n-Curiosity.htm
is a wonderful things-to-do list for curiosity arousal. The article
begins by differentiating "specific" curiosity from
"diverse" curiosity, and establishing the need to arouse
specific curiosity for motivating the learners.
February 2009
- "Five Instructional Design Principles Worth Revisiting"
by Brenda Sugrue at http://www.qln.ca/Documents/Knowledge%20Base/Other%20Expertise/Five_ID_Principles_final.pdf
is an excellent checklist that can help you stay on track while
you design. The five principles discussed in this article are:
Learning is not performance (great point - isn't it quite often
that we come across course objectives that are written primarily
to enable learning and not to impact performance,) the medium
is not the method, match internal and external conditions, authentic
practice makes perfect, and one size doesn't fit all!
January 2009
- Learning happens. It happens whether or not we interfere with
the brain's processing of information - and this is the basis
for the principles of brain-based learning. Read about the principles
at: http://www.funderstanding.com/content/brain-based-learning.
What may interest you even more are the three instructional techniques
called Orchestrated Immersion, Relaxed Alertness, and Active Processing.
~~~~~~ 2008 ~~~~~~
December 2008
- If you are engaged in developing content for the online adult
learner, you will find "Meeting the Needs of Adult Learners
in Developing Courses for the Internet" by Linda Stilborne
and Lindy Williams at http://www.isoc.org/inet96/proceedings/c4/c4_2.htm
useful. This write-up begins with an overview of Internet from
the learning angle and then discusses the adult learner's online
behavior.
November 2008
- So how does learning happen? Do you agree that brain has got
something to do with it? Paradoxically enough, what the human
brain has found most difficult to explain is its own working.
In fact, the Ancient Egyptians believed that brain was a useless
jelly that performed no useful function, and so when they mummified
their royal dead, they stored all the other internal organs in
alabaster jars, but they threw the brain away!
Fortunately, we now know that it’s our mind that makes us
what we are. Though the complexities of the human mind are not
yet completely understood, theories have been formulated on the
basis of experimental data. Read, "The Inside Story - Understanding
the structure of the brain," by Robert Gilman at http://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC06/Gilman1.htm,
to understand the structure and the processes of the human mind.
October 2008
- Find a directional dictionary of digital instructional design
at http://www.digitalinstructionaldesign.com/nonlinear_dictionary_instructional_design.htm.
Personally, I am of the opinion that instructional design stretches
its boundaries when it's applied to eLearning.
September 2008
- The newly anointed instructional designer is always on the lookout
for a crisp and light fare. Well, here is a short and crisp synopsis
of the content design and development process at:
http://i-taps.com/Instructional_Design.html
Read "SITUATED INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: BLURRING THE DISTINCTIONS
BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE, DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION, CURRICULUM
AND INSTRUCTION" by Brent G. Wilson at http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/sitid.html
for some very practical tips on how to design, develop, and
implement instruction.
August 2008
- Writing to instruct isn't easy. It requires a great deal of
patience supported by the capacity to take the pain of sacrificing
your most creative pieces of writing. I think Kevin Kruse's articles
exemplify instructional writing. His articles are short and to
the point. I refer you to his article " Evaluating e-Learning:
Introduction to the Kirkpatrick Model" at
http://www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art2_8.htm
, which is an excellent read.
July 2008
- There are so many theories and models overwhelming the greenhorn
ID/trainer that the poor harried soul loses begins to wonder whether
moving into this field was the right decision! I recommend http://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/~mmalacho/OnLine/ADDIE.html
to those who have just arrived on the ID scene. This page provides
a quick synopsis of ADDIE, ARCS, and Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction.
- Those who are running the mill are usually interested in determining
how much is enough, in content as well as control. Facilitation
is something that always confuses us! When should the facilitator
intervene...how much of intervention is too much...when to begin...and
when to stop! Click http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-rogers.htm
to read “Carl Rogers and informal education” by Smith,
M.K.
June 2008
- For a complete overview of the teaching process, click http://www.uab.edu/uasomume/cdm/resources.htm
- A simple glossary of some instructional design terms is available
at http://www.instructionaldesign.org/glossary.html
- If you like to dig into the past to construct the evolutionary
path of a discipline, find "a hypertext history of instructional
design" at http://www.coe.uh.edu/courses/cuin6373/idhistory/
May 2008
- At http://hsc.csu.edu.au/pro_dev/teaching_online/how_we_learn/cognitive.html
you will find an excellent essay on the cognitive learning theories.
It discusses the ideas of three cognitive theorists (Bruner, Ausubel,
and Gagne).
Jerome Bruner's focal principle was that "a combination of
concrete, pictorial then symbolic activities will lead to more
effective learning," similar to Dale's hypothesis. Ausubel's
advance organizer that enables activation of learner's schema
is a device that many of us have already used. I think that this
particular page presents a very brief yet interesting introduction
to the works of these three theorists.
April 2008
- Rapid Prototyping...it is a term that is often heard in our
industry. If your understanding of this term is somewhat nebulous,
don't worry. The Tripp and Bichelmeyer Rapid Prototyping Model
will help dispel the confusion. http://it.coe.uga.edu/studio/seminars/rpmodel.html
displays the graphic representation of this model. The stages
in this model overlap with one-another (thus making the process
"rapid".)
Click http://www.public.iastate.edu/~abowser/pdf/Rapid%20Prototyping%20Presentation.pdf
for an instructive presentation on the Tripp and Bichelmeyer model.
March 2008
- What is it that motivates the online learner? Read "Building
Success for E-Learners"
by Jennifer Hofmann at http://www.learningcircuits.org/2003/jul2003/hofmann.htm
to explore the various types of eLearning content and what should
be done to motivate the learners for online learning.
- "Instructional Strategies for Online Courses" at http://www.ion.illinois.edu/resources/tutorials/pedagogy/instructionalstrategies.asp
discusses 10 ID strategies that can be used for creating online
content. Of the ten instructional strategies mentioned in this
article, the use of "learning contracts" is quite interesting
(and apparently very challenging too.)
February 2008
- The Cognitive Load theory is an extremely interesting and useful
concept. It helps explain why the amount and the speed of learning
vary in different learning conditions. An extremely useful article
"Visualization and Instructional Design" by Dr. John
Sweller (the proponent of the cognitive load theory) is available
at:
http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/trynew/sweller-visualinstructionaldesign.pdf
January 2008
- Writing instructional objectives...
Is it an art, a science, or a skill that can be learned?
I guess it is a skill, which keeps vacillating between being an
art and a science. What matters most is - how we perfect it and
for what purpose. Click http://www2.gsu.edu/~mstmbs/CrsTools/Magerobj.html
to learn how to do what you know can always be done better! (The
last line is a non-example of clear and precise writing, which
is a pre-requisite skill for writing good objectives!)
- Another link that you may find useful is http://www.naacls.org/docs/announcement/writing-objectives.pdf
~~~~~~ 2007 ~~~~~~
December 2007
- Reflect upon this.
When Mr. Falana (Mr. someone else) isn't promoted, it is because
he didn't perform well, or because he isn't smart enough! But
when I am not promoted, it's because my seniors are scared of
competition or because I didn't get the opportunity to perform!
But then, if I am promoted it's due to my hard work and my intelligence;
but when Mr. Falana is promoted, it's because he had an opportunity
to work on that fantastic, high visibility project!
There are two points to be noted. The first point is that humans
can't stop themselves from giving reasons (supplying causes) for
the events they observe. The second, and the more important point
is that the reasons always have some personal bias. If you are
curious, learn about Fritz Heider's Attribution theory at:
http://www.as.wvu.edu/~sbb/comm221/chapters/attrib.htm
November 2007
- We all know that constructivism speaks of the interpretation
or meaning that each one of us constructs as we go through different
experiences. Align your thoughts on constructivism with the social
constructivist theory, through a quick introduction to Vygotsky's
theory of ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development.) This theory will
give you an instructionally sound reason for spending more time
with your child. Click http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/constructivism.htm
to read "Constructivist Theory."
- http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/social.htm
is another excellent, highly informative mini-portal for those
who are interested in furthering their understanding of Vygotsky's
theory of social constructivism.
October 2007
- "Connectivism: a new learning theory?" at http://elearning.surf.nl/e-learning/english/3793
presents Pløn Verhagen's opinion on connectivism at the
e-learning theme site. Pløn Verhagen is a professor Educational
Design at the University of Twente, The Netherlands.
- If you haven't heard of connectivism, your work must be keeping
you away from the latest buzz in the eLearning corridors! Click
http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm
to read George Siemens’ original article on Connectivism.
It is important to note that most of the criticism that Connectivism
has invited is about its status as a theory. My experience suggests
that the usefulness of the observations made by Siemens is quite
high in practical eLearning content creation.
September 2007
- Landa's Algo-Heuristic theory states that all "cognitive
activities" can be classified into 4 different types, on
the basis of the conscious or sub-conscious action of the mind.
He classifies them as: "algorithmic, semi-algorithmic, heuristic,
or semi-heuristic". In other words, our mind solves problems
either by following a step-by-step process, or by going through
a trial-and-error method; or by using a combination of both.
Click http://tip.psychology.org/landa.html
to read about the Algo-Heuristic theory in more detail.
August 2007
- http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/m/r/mrs331/idm.htm
is an interesting page for those who want to compare the different
instructional design models in existence, with ADDIE; and determine
which enchants them the most. Among those listed, the Dick &
Carey model and the Morrison, Ross, and Kemp model would be familiar
to instructional designers and trainers respectively. The project
managers may want to take a closer look at the Seels and Glasgow
model.
July 2007
- Though controversial, the theory of multiple intelligences fascinates.
Intelligence, that was initially classified into 7 different types,
by Dr. Howard Gardner; now is classified into eight types. This
theory helps us understand why some of us are more skilled in
some areas and not so skilled in some other areas - and why these
areas are different for different people. Do you dance? I don't.
Do you draw? I do. Do you sing? I don't...why?
Click http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr054.shtml
to read a crisp and clear article "Multiple Intelligences:
A Theory for Everyone" by Anne Guignon at Education World.
June 2007
- "Science of e-learning involves the scientific investigation
of how people learn in electronic environments."
Why is it important for us to know how people learn in electronic
environments? I guess it is important as this knowledge helps
us design more effective elearning content. The article, "ELEMENTS
OF A SCIENCE OF E-LEARNING" by RICHARD E. MAYER, which is
available at: http://cecs5580.pbwiki.com/f/elements%20of%20a%20science%20of%20e-learning.pdf
discusses the 9 effects that can be replicated in eLearning.
May 2007
- All those who are interested in finding a resource that provides
a consolidated view of instructional design and its applications,
will find http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/training.html
a useful link.
This paper called 'Cognitive Approaches to Instructional Design"
by Brent Wilson, David Jonassen, and Peggy Cole; provides an overview
of instructional design and its dynamic application in the learning
and training scenarios of today.
April 2007
- Universal Instructional Design is instructional design that
meets the learning needs of most of the audience irrespective
of their learning preferences, learning styles, or disabilities.
As UID doesn't mean robbing content of its personality but making
it more flexible, it follows that UID would use different ways
to treat and deliver the same content to the diverse audience,
hence addressing their diversity effectively.
Click http://www.brown.edu/Administration/Dean_of_the_College/uid/html/what_uid.shtml
for an excellent explanation of UID. Then click http://www.brown.edu/Administration/Dean_of_the_College/uid/html/what_essential.shtml
to read about the characteristics of UID. According to this page,
UID aims at providing multiple means of representation, engagement,
and expression. What we need to understand is that UID does more
than ensuring that the courses become accessible and engaging
for specific groups of people; what it aims to ensure is that
they become more effective for the entire audience.
March 2007
- Here's THE link. You are so discerning...the “THE”
is capitalized because this link is special - it links us to a
fantastic story. I think it is one of the best stories that I've
read in a long time! Click http://www1.asknlearn.com/ri_Ilearning/English/631/elang-ilearning/page3a.htm
to read, "Love is a Fallacy" by Max Shulman.
No. I haven't gone crazy. I have a completely valid, non-fallacious
argument for adding the above link to this section. This story
represents how storytelling revamps instructional design. After
having read the story, read "Stories Not Just IN, but AS
Instruction" at http://cid.lib.byu.edu/?p=138
February 2007
- Trainers often address multiple intelligences while they train.
This is truer in the case of soft-skill trainings such as leadership,
sales communication, etc. Read about Howard Gardner's theory of
multiple intelligences at: http://www.homeedsa.com/Articles/Multiple%20Intelligences.asp
The interesting point to note is that intelligences are determined
not just biologically but culturally as well. Thus, the magnitude
of one kind of intelligence in a particular society could be vastly
different from the amount of the same kind of intelligence in
some other society. The variations would depend on the kind of
value a society places on a kind of intelligence.
January 2007
- Connectivism...what does it mean? Why has it caught the fancy
of eLearning instructional designers around the world? Begin your
exploration by clicking http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm
to read the introductory, thought-provoking article by the Connectivism
theorist George Siemens himself. This article prepares grounds
for the introduction of connectivism by exploring the three existing
approaches to learning - behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.
It reviews the three approaches to identify the common shortcoming
of all the three approaches, when applied to the learning environment
of today - "These theories do not address learning that occurs
outside of people (i.e. learning that is stored and manipulated
by technology)."
Later, the article introduces connectivism as an alternative theory
and explains that "Learning (defined as actionable knowledge)
can reside outside of ourselves (within an organization or a database),
is focused on connecting specialized information sets, and the
connections that enable us to learn more are more important than
our current state of knowing." The article then lists the
fundamental principles of this alternate theory.
- After you have read through the article, click http://www.elearnspace.org/media/connectivism_Web_2/player.html
to hear George Siemens talk about his theory.
~~~~~~ 2006 ~~~~~~
December 2006
- Automation of instructional design is a concept that has generated
a lot of interest (as well as controversy) in the recent past.
AID or Automated Instructional Design refers to the use of computers
for instructional design. As I mentioned in one of the earlier
issues, the main controversy surrounding AID is that whether or
not it can result in the design of effective instruction for higher
cognitive levels. If the concept of AID intrigues you, click http://www.davidvl.org/250CourseSpr04/b15.html
to read a comprehensive article on it.
- Those who belong to the training arena may like to acquaint
themselves with AID as well as its use in the training environment
through a very simple to follow, yet comprehensive paper called
"Cognitive Approaches to Instructional Design" at http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/training.html
November 2006
Theories of instructional design & the practice of content
development...how huge is the gap? The general opinion that exists
in the eLearning & training industry is that they are two
parallel concepts. Experienced content developers often speak
of instructional design theories with slight disdain. Somewhere
something is not right! Instructional design concepts are the
spinal cord of content - if they are not given the respect they
deserve, the content will have a very high probability of being
ineffective and weak!
- The link http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/smorgan/IDTHEORY.html
will bring out the character of theories and underline their importance
with respect to instructional design.
- I've always found the Gestalt Theory thought provoking. I also
think that some tenets of this theory can be explained through
constructivism. Click http://chd.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/strategies/cognitivism/gestalt/gestalt.htm
to read more about Gestalt!
October 2006
- "What is Instructional Design Theory?" by Peter de
Lisle at http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/peterdl/ID%20Theory.htm
reflects upon a very important yet basic question. This article
reviews the role of ID theories in learning, classifies the three
types of theories, and explores the different approaches to instructional
design. Thus, this article will help the intellectual instructional
designer find answers to questions such as - why we need instructional
design theories and how they map to our real experiences.
September 2006
- George Siemens' articles always impress me with their objectivity
and clarity. I recommend a reading of "Instructional Design
in Elearning." to all those who've just joined the eLearning
industry (and my experience with the eLearning industry) tells
me that I address many new and inspired instructional designers
each month:)) Here is the link: http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/InstructionalDesign.htm
- Here's some food for thought for the more seasoned instructional
designers. If you have wondered whether instructional design too
can be implemented in automatic mode, the answer is "yes."
In "Tools for Automating Instructional Design," an article
by Abby Kasowitz, at the ERIC Digest site's page http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-1/tools.html,
you will find a discussion on the AID tools. If it sets you wondering
whether our jobs are about to be taken up by computers (sigh!)
fret not, as these tools are expected to "eliminate only
some physical tasks such as storyboarding and test generation"
(the test questions would probably never rise above BL3!) I would
say that such tools could be helpful in organizing instruction
for procedural content only.
When I began reading this article, I expected the mention of
ID2 (2nd generation instructional design) to come up...and it
did! An AID tool called ID Expert is based on Dr. Merrill's
ITT! As you go through the article, you will also find support
for my earlier statement about the questions not exceeding BL3!
I quote from the article, "While expert systems for instructional
design can teach theory validation and function as authoring
tools, they are limited by their inability to support analysis
and design tasks." I nod my head in complete agreement!
My allegiance to constructivism restricts my support to AID!
August 2006
- http://www.osufst.org/Resources/inst_toolbox/Learner%20Motivation.pdf
is a short but excellent article on learner motivation. This
article, brings out the essence of keeping the learner motivation,
by stating - "Motivation is the first, middle, and last steps
of the learning process." This article also provides a simple
checklist for trainers, which can help them ensure that the learner
stays motivated through out the program.
- Behaviorism, which was the dominant approach to learning until
the mid-nineteenth century, perplexes many of us. Read about the
three types of behaviorism (methodological, psychological, and
analytical; of which, the third will sound new to most of us,)
at http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/.
What I found most interesting in this link is Skinner's Social
Worldview, in his characterization of the Walden II society.
July 2006
- Click http://epitome.ce.gatech.edu/iowa/assistant.html
to access the Instructional Objective writing assistant. This
tool attempts to summarize the design of a course in terms of
Bloom's Taxonomy. I am not completely convinced of its efficacy
in course design, but probably I am missing something. Do try
it out; it seems to me an interesting concept.
- If you've found yourself wondering what verb should you use
for framing an objective, click http://www.naacls.org/docs/announcement/writing-objectives.pdf
for lists of verbs against each of the three learning domains.
June 2006
- If you've been given the task to create a syllabus on the basis
of a sketchy content outline, a rough audience profile, and virtually
no SME support, you will find a friend in "Syllabus Design"
at http://www.edtech.neu.edu/workshops/materials/course/materials/syllabus/.
May 2006
- "A Pebble-in-the-Pont Model of Instructional Design"
by David Merrill, is a developmental model, which begins when
the pebble of the "task" or "problem" is
cast. Casting this pebble results into ripples that progress
outwards. These ripples comprise determination of problems,
the skills necessary to complete the tasks, determination of
instructional strategy for ensuring learner's attention, and
finally, the interface design. The pdf of this model is available
at: http://www.clarktraining.com/content/articles/PebbleInThePond.pdf.
- "Reclaiming Instructional Design" by M. David Merrill,
Leston Drake, Mark J. Lacy, Jean Pratt, is a research paper
that focuses on instructional design's blurred role in eLearning.
The pdf of this paper is available at http://cito.byuh.edu/merrill/text/papers/Reclaiming.PDF.
April 2006
- At http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/h/x/hxk208/INSYS525/K_base2.htm
you can read about the Instructional Transaction Theory by Merril.
In this article Merril explains the theory through an example
of the dynasty of Korea. In the beginning of the article he
also defines an "instructional transaction" as "all
of the interactions necessary for a student to acquire a particular
kind of knowledge or skill".
- "People remember 10%, 20%...Oh Really?" at http://www.work-learning.com/chigraph.htm
is a thought-provoking article about Dale's Cone of Experience.
Many of us, who have repeatedly questioned the sanctity of the
percentages that we often see in most representations of Dale's
cone, would find some answers at this link.
March 2006
- The area of applied psychology that interests us most is that
of educational psychology. "A Brief History" at http://www.wcupa.edu/_ACADEMICS/sch_cas.psy/Career_Paths/
Educational/Career04.htm will provide you an insight into
the development of this discipline.
- A lot of information about the human mind can be found on
this page. Click on http://www.solbaram.org/articles/humind.html
to read the article "How the Human Brain Developed and
How the Human Mind Works" by Manfred Davidmann, which discusses
the evolution of human brain, the different frequencies that
the human mind works at, the different states of mind, the different
memory types and so on.
February 2006
- While designing instruction, there is often the issue of
balancing brevity with clarity. Flowcharts can help manage this
issue to a great extent by providing a common visual language
for all who are involved in the design process. Click on http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/simplesymbols/index.htm
to see how some simple flowchart symbols can reduce the verbosity
of your design. eLearning companies can conduct a short training
to ensure that everyone involved with the content development
process is capable of understanding and creating these flowcharts.
- The cognitive load theory never fails to enchant me. We all
know that it becomes difficult to learn new concepts when there
is a lot of noise in the background; or when we are worried
about something. Yet, it isn't that difficult to understand
a new point about something that we know a lot about. Why does
it happen? Does it have some implications for instructional
designers? To find answers to these and other such questions,
click on http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/chipperfield/
to read "Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design"
by Brian Chipperfield.
January 2006
- Is andragogy truly about adult learning? If it is, then the
question that we should ask is - when is it that humans become
adults? Is a fifty-year-old gentleman more adult than a 25-year-old
man? Is there a magic threshold upon crossing which we become
true adults? These questions and answers to these questions
are important because it's our business to impart learning effectively.
The answers to these questions will lead us to correctly position
our courses and learning material on the teacher-centric learning
- learner centric learning continuum. Click on http://agelesslearner.com/intros/andragogy.html
for a simple and clear viewpoint on this discussion.
- Another comprehensive article "Andragogy and Technology:
Integrating Adult Learning Theory As We Teach With Technology"
about the use of andragogy in today's online learning environment
should be useful to all who are associated with eLearning. Click
on http://www.mtsu.edu/~itconf/proceed00/fidishun.htm
for a comprehensive discussion on how different characteristics
of adult learners should be taken into account while creating
content for online delivery.
~~~~~~ 2005 ~~~~~~
December 2005
- If rapid instructional design is a word that has been buzzing
around in your organization recently, and if your project manager
is pushing you into a corner asking you to design faster, you
will find http://www.thiagi.com/article-rid.html
useful. Sivasailam "Thiagi" Thiagarajan outlines 10
strategies and 20 guidelines (Are you marveling at how authors
always manage to reach magical "round" numbers? So
am I.) that can help an instructional designer save some time
without bringing down the quality of his course.
- Another concept that we should familiarize ourselves with
is that of Universal Instructional Design (UID). Those of us
who have worked on accessible courses, would recognize the term
without much difficulty. On the lines of universal design of
structures (structures designed in order to be accessible to
all,) universal instructional design is about designing learning
in a way that it becomes accessible to all. This neat article
(http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Strehorn-UID.html)
by Kregg C. Strehorn, provides ideas and guidelines to implement
UID into ESL (English as a Second Language) classes. I think
trainers and instructors will find it extremely useful.
November 2005
- How often have you reflected upon the differences between
Instructional Design and Instructional System Design? Is ADDIE
an ID model or an ISD model? Why is it that the line between
the two is so blurred that we usually miss it? Click on http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/s/j/sjm256/portfolio/kbase/
IDD/ISDModels.html#kemp. It will help you refresh your understanding
of ADDIE, Dick & Carey, and Kemp Models. I recommend that
you read the article without worrying about the diagram; you'll
find it less intimidating!
October 2005
- If you are a theory-enthusiast, check out http://www.cyg.net/~jblackmo/diglib/styl-a.html
to read some interesting ones. They do take our perspective
on adult learning a bit forward, but I can't confirm if the
direction they take us in, is the right one. I would like to
draw your attention to "How Males Learn" (William
Perry 1968) and "How Women Learn" (Belenky et al.)
I have a feeling that both men and women will find the theories
slightly far-fetched. But then, this is why they are theories...right?
- Read about cognitive teaching methods in this paper written
by Brent G. Wilson
and Peggy Cole at http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/hndbkch.html.
What I would specifically like to draw your attention to is
John Sweller's Cognitive Load Theory. I think this theory should
go into our ID backpack immediately! I’ve added it to
mine.
- If you are creating content for adults, don't forget to check
out this highly useful and contextual article by Duane B. Graddy
on application of cognitive flexibility theory for interactive
content. Click on http://www.ipfw.edu/as/tohe/2001/Papers/graddy/graddy.htm
to read this article.
September 2005
- Have you heard of Gestalt? Sure you have! So tell me about
it because I never understood it completely. Somewhere down
the line I get so thoroughly confused that I stop reading about
it. But this article puts Gestalt in the correct perspective,
in proximity, in the right order, with symmetry, follows the
law of closure, and maintains continuity. If you don't "understand"
what I mean, click on http://chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/strategies/
cognitivism/gestalt/gestalt.htm.
- If you are new in ID and want to get an idea of what different
terms, theories, models, and approaches mean, you will get a
lot of information at http://wwwadmin.cl.uh.edu/itc/course/INST/6031/html/pedagogy.htm.
- http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/development.html
is another link that presents Gagne's Nine Events in a beautiful
way. This is what I mean when I say that good ID can do a lot
without harassing the graphic designer and the programmer!
August 2005
- In view of the current abundance of LMSs and the uncanny
readiness with which organizations have embraced them (reusability
being the carrot,) this article explores a new paradigm for
instructional design, "dynamic construction of instructional
content based on an independently managed presentation and delivery
layer."
This paradigm exists due to the reusability feature of content.
It has to be ensured that the content is independent of the
delivery mode as well as presentation style. This seems contrary
to the philosophy of content customization to map learner's
requirements, attitudes, learning styles, and so on. Read "Another
New Paradigm for Instructional Design By Reuben Tozman"
at http://www.learningcircuits.org/2004/nov2004/tozman.htm.
- As Instructional Designers it's our duty to be aware of "Accessibility"
and what it means. Before you read "Instructional Design
and Accessibility: Cognitive Curb Cuts" a thought provoking
article by Stephanie Roberts at http://www.aect.org/Divisions/roberts.htm,
I implore you to visit http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blindness
to read about blindness."
Cognitive Accessibility" is where we Instructional Designers
need to extend the realms of our design and critical thinking
capabilities to ensure that we create the accessibility layer
to make our content more effective for all our users and learners.
- For those who are interested in taking their knowledge of
accessibility further, I recommend http://vision.unco.edu/AccessibleDesign/,
where you will find a tutorial for creating accessible websites.
Note: The next serial that begins in September will focus on
accessibility.
July 2005
- Engelmann's Theory of Direct Instruction assumes "nurture"
to be to most important force in learning. Engelmann and Carnine
hold that environment is the variable that impacts learning
the most. They first define "faultless communication"
and "generalization," after which they explain logical
construction of examples and non-examples. Click on http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/387/OpenModules/Engelmann/theory.shtml
to find out whether your examples and non-examples are "vudged"
or "rectus"!
- If you want to know more about "Direct Instruction,"
visit http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~bgrossen/pubs/aftdi.htm.
Though DI is mostly used for teacher-directed learning, I find
that the concept can help an eLearning Instructional Designer
create some very fascinating interactions.
- http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/diarticle.html
will provide some more information on Direct Instruction. In
contrast to "Constructivism", which theorizes about
individual perceptions of the same reality being different,
"Instructivism" keeps thinking and reality separate.
Check it out...a fresh perspective broadens the mind!
June 2005
- Robert Gagné's Instructional Design Approach is explained
in a very simple yet effective manner at http://www2.gsu.edu/~mstswh/courses/it7000/papers/robert.htm.
This site is among the best that I've come across on Gagne's
Instructional Design Approach.
- Ben Hambelton, Director BSU Instructional Technology Center,
introduces fresh IDs to Instructional Design in this article
at http://itc.boisestate.edu/icet/guides/design.htm.
May 2005
- Rapid eLearing - What is it? This term has been doing rounds
for quite some time now. Read this article "Rapid Instructional
Design: A Breakthrough" at Bersin & Associate's site by
clicking on http://www.bersin.com/tips_techniques/
jul-aug_04_rapid_ID.asp. This article differentiates Rapid
Instructional Design from traditional instructional design and
provides guidelines on when to use which.
- In this paper, Jared M. Carman reviews the five ingredients
that constitute blended learning. Click on http://www.knowledgenet.com/pdf/Blended%20
Learning%20Design_1028.PDF to read how live events, self-paced
learning, collaboration, assessment, and finally the performance
support materials need to come together in the right measure
to make blended-learning successful.
- Did you know that you could become a certified culture professional?
I was surprised to find that http://www.worldculture.com/culturemark/index.asp
has a Culture Globalist Certification Program. This program
focuses on cross-cultural communication. I guess Indian eLearning
companies could do with at least one culture expert - a specialist
who could ensure that our content was culturally compatible
with its audience. What do you think?
April 2005
- For those who like things to be in order, who love to see
everything neatly packaged in the tight compartment called "definition,"
here are some cool definitions of Instructional Design. Check
out http://www.umich.edu/~ed626/define.html.
The one that I find succinct, pithy, crisp, and practical is
"Instructional Design as a Science."
- If you've found yourself crumpling sheets after sheets of
paper, tossing them in the wastebasket, and wondering if there
was a simple gizmo that will write the objectives for a course;
fret no more...click on http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/templates/objectivetool.html
and let your creativity flow. You will also find ensconced in
the page, a link for the verbs that can be used to write objectives.
You are on your way to becoming an "Objective-Genius."
March 2005
- Please visit http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/InstructionalDesign.htm.
In this article, Kevin Kruse traces the links between Instructional
Design and eLearning. The first part of this article defines
and explains Instructional Design. This is followed by brief
descriptions of different instructional theories and models.
The third and last section lists the reasons why Instructional
Design needs to bond with eLearning to make it more useful and
valuable.
- This article, "Reclaiming Instructional Design"
is a thought-provoking paper by M. David Merrill, Leston Drake,
Mark J. Lacy, Jean Pratt & the ID2 Research Group, Utah
State University. I found this link on the above article by
Kevin Kruse, and I felt that I should draw your attention to
this. Please visit http://www.ittheory.com/reclaim.htm;
reclaim your inner voice and rethink why we often talk about
Instructional Design as a subjective discipline. Here is a hint
to the reason. Most often than not, subjectivity is introduced
through ignorance and ignorance is a reality in this imperfect
world.
February 2005
- Check out http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/learningtree/DCD/
WWWInstrdesign/WWWInstrDesign.html. This is a simple but
useful site that you should bookmark even if you are not developing
online content right now. The point about “Motivating
the Learner,” does become alarmingly important when the
user is online!
- Read about 10 different Instructional Design theories at:
http://www.funderstanding.com/instruction.cfm
The material here is presented well and as it is in form of
readable chunks, I recommend it for leisure reading. Combine
the reading with some doodling and who know you may be the one
proposing the eleventh theory.
January 2005
- Beginning from the Basics – What is Instructional Design?
The following URL provides some crisp definitions for those
who like to pack great things in little hold-alls.http://www.coe.uh.edu/courses/cuin6373/whatisid.html#thinking
- If you are one of those who like to know the mechanics of
the concepts working behind instructionally correct content,
the following URL is a collectible. http://www.indiana.edu/~idtheory/methods/methods.html
- A beautifully encapsulated set of dos and don’ts for
online Design. The structure of this visually refreshing site
is that of principles, practices, and examples. http://www.fgcu.edu/onlinedesign/designDev.html
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